Investment Scope Analyzing Boeing and Lockheed Martin

Question: Describe about portfolio of Boeing and Lockheed Martin. Answer: Introduction This report tries to evaluate through the factors like company strength, competition, advantages and past records that of Boeing and Lockheed martin with the company that works feasible to invest (Shaw, 2011). Portfolio of Boeing The worlds biggest company in aerospace and leader in commercial jetliners manufacturing along with defense security systems and space. This American company is largest exporter of these systems along with support to other 150 countries and their governments in use of these technologies (boeing, 2016). The company products and services are military and commercial aircrafts, the weapons, satellites, electronic systems related to defense, launch, advanced communication and information, logistics and the training that is performance based. The company corporate office operating from Chicago has employee strength of 1,60,000 based out of united states and other more 65 countries. This speaks of the much talented, diverse and the innovative staff. The company also leverages on the large skilled talented people those working for their suppliers across the world (boeing, 2016). The two business units Boeing as a company is organized are the commercial Airplanes and the areas of Defense, security and space. The units are supported by Boeing Capital corporation who is global provider related to the financial solutions, the group related to shared services that gives Boeing worldwide services that ranges broadly. The Boeing engineering, the technology and operations helps acquiring, developing, applying and protecting processes and the innovative technologies. The company working in these two markets faces the challenges with economic downturn with the world market but at the same time, it provides the Boeing customers with financial solutions (Sato, 2013). The company is valued approximately by 2015 end with more than dollar 100 billion makes it the company that has financial and global strength and reach. Further the company strategic advantage are the innovation that the people bring to the fore front that has helped the company to handle competitors though the company had to go through the difficult times in the past but people being the core to success of Boeing. The company had also looked in the past with merger with Lockheed for Rockets that had run into issues with legal terms and the company strategic advantage of commercial and the defense systems have evolved through the model of innovation. The fact that Boeing had been through periods of merger and acquisitions that with the innovation the company emphasizes on the people power and the market along with the competition that has helped the company to thrive. The company has been working towards creating highest customer value and strong future for employees. Therefore, it is worth investing in this company that has innovation and commercial business that provides the edge. Portfolio of Lockheed Martin The company operating out of Bethesda, Maryland headquarters in US is into aerospace and global security. The company has estimated 98,000 employees working world over and primarily engaged in areas of research, the design, manufacture, development, integration and advance technology sustainment services and products (lockheedmartin, 2016).The company is mainly into defense unlike the Boeing. The company mainly deals with US Defense department and the government federal agencies in US. The company operations spread over 590 facilities in US and in territories and nations internationally with more than 70 locations. The financial performance of the company as of 2015 estimated with sales of dollar 46.1 billion and with backlog amounting to dollar 99.6 billion. The operational cash flow are dollar 5.1 billion. The company operating units into these broad areas related to business are organized like the Aeronautical, the fire control and the missiles, the mission training and systems, and the areas of space systems. The fact that the company is primarily involved with defense deals mostly unlike the Boeing that has been more profitable in terms of the financial strength and the international reach; however, the one advantage that the company has its strong engineering strength that is the strategic advantage with the company in aerospace defense area. The challenges though are many with the fall of the cold war era the deals in defense is limited to the strategic decisions of the government of the countries. The market is demanding with higher areas of technology and defense systems that the company needs to meet which however is true for all the players. The move that has indeed helped the company is to stick to the engineering of the defense aerospace technologies is bringing back the company to provide large deals in defense that it needs to capitalize. Conclusion Thus based on the financials and the reach of the both companies that is Boeing and Lockheed Martin provides the edge to Boeing regarding the investment to be made. Apart from the above, the Boeings strength in the commercial Airlines space and innovation apart from the defense market provides with greater market and technological strength. References Sato, R. (2013). Risk assessment in airlines stocks market.J. Transp. Lit., 7(2), pp.352-372. Shaw, S. (2011).Airline marketing and management. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate. boeing.(2016).BoeingInternational.[online]Availableat:https://www.boeing.com/company/key-orgs/boeing-international/ [Accessed 8 Sep. 2016]. lockheedmartin.(2016).lockheedmartin.[online]Availableat:https://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/who-we-are.html [Accessed 8 Sep. 2016].

Using a Medical Sample Essay Example For Your Resume Objective

Using a Medical Sample Essay Example For Your Resume ObjectiveStudents will want to find a MPP sample essay that can demonstrate how easy it is to be employed in medical marketing. There are many avenues to go down, but one of the most popular is the use of medical sample essays. It's a legitimate way to be able to provide references and make sure that you know all the components that will come with the job, but you will want to choose an essay that will show off your writing skills and also make sure that you are providing some practical examples of medical marketing.Medical samples are generally used as reference materials in order to start to show some general traits and attributes of individuals that you are interviewing for the position. It's also a good way to let the interviewer know what a difference the student made to the hiring decision. It's possible to use this as an essay because it will show up in the interview as well. These aren't just for show and will add to the ov erall picture.When looking for an essay, you need to consider some things. First and foremost, you want to pick a topic that will give you an idea of what the job entails. Of course, you will want to make sure that the particular article you choose has the knowledge you need to convince the employer.If you've decided to use an MMP sample, there are many things to consider when picking one. You will want to think about who the essay is for, if it's for an employer, a co-worker, or even a parent. The type of sample you choose will dictate how you write it.Although it might seem elementary, it is actually important to be very specific about the subject matter. You don't want to just skim through the sample. There is some commonality of thought, but each individual writer will have a slightly different point of view. Make sure that you cover all of these bases when choosing a specific MMP sample essay example.Writing a resume objective doesn't have to be as complicated as some may think . You just need to take some time to think about what you want your future employer to see in you. It isn't only about your medical background. You will also want to explain why you are qualified for the position. Keep this to yourself until you are asked for an example by the interviewer.Using an MMP sample is a great way to get started on the road to success. Just remember to be specific about the job. Don't be overly-generic. Know exactly what you want to be when the next step is completed.

On the banks of the Neva Review Essay Example

On the banks of the Neva Review Paper Essay on On the banks of the Neva This example of elegant, elegance of prose talented woman. A magnificent monument erected on the Silver Age of paper. Example of what should be a memoir, to be interesting, exciting, and not forced to quietly yawn of boredom. In my opinion, Odoyevtseva entered the history of literature, not as a poet, her memories overshadowed her poetry . Do I have to regret it? I think it is not necessary. On the pages of her memoirs revive Gumilyov, Akhmatova, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, Taffy, Blok, Yesenin, and many other talented people of a bygone era .EE memories are only its interpretation of what he saw, uslyshennogo. They are thin, delicate, sophisticated, friendly. I believe her. I feel her sincerity. I feel her humanity. The story draws to impossible, the two volumes On the banks of the Neva, On the banks of the Seine avidly read in one day. Even not known to me until then figure poets take on the majestic aura arouse interest and desire to learn, prochustvovat. Contributes to this magnificent collection of poems, chosen by the author. We will write a custom essay sample on On the banks of the Neva Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on On the banks of the Neva Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on On the banks of the Neva Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer I do not know whether to impute to her reproach, but his personal life with Georgi Ivanov, it describes very delicately, avoiding awkward moments. Napr.fraza abandoned her, I was not jealous, whether such strikes are unlikely to scratch, but Odoyevtseva tactfully silent about the reasons to get her to this proiznesti.Navernoe it right, you should not throw off geniuses from their pedestals. What I personally can not forgive her (I certainly dramatizing, but still boyish in me ineradicable) so it remarry after the death of her husband. In order to perpetuate this beautiful story of an alliance between it and Georgi Ivanov, it is just before the story had no right to remarry. Of course, my statement comical. I am sure that there were reasons for the marriage of a property, not the desire to save another poet, I think it was, and material calculations, including (this is only my speculation), tkv memoirs said that they in the end of life they lived very poorly, almost starving. And I can well understand a lonely woman at the age of the remaining one, with virtually no means of livelihood. But I just want to dismiss it, to erase these events To summarize:. Brilliant memoirs of a brilliant epoch, written by the brilliant woman! I bow.

Edward Hubert Land Biography Essay Example

Edward Hubert Land Biography Essay Example Edward Hubert Land Biography Essay Edward Hubert Land Biography Essay Edward Hubert Land Biography BY ekfi0214 Biography of Edwin Herbert Land Land, Edwin Herbert (7 May 1909- 1 March 1991) is born in Bridgeport, Connecticut. An inventor of Polaroid Photography, and became an entrepreneur beginning of new photo industry. Edwin thought of something no one else would have thought about: The convenience of films that can be processed outside under any circumstances with complete success. He wanted to produce a hand held camera where you can print and develop the negatives right away. The ability to look at the photos that is taken right away was a hug success! It did not need to go through the trouble of long process of someone develop your film. With this certain achievement, many people thought that was revolutionary. He hosted inventions where it was ranked second in number comparison to Edisons. Not only he was the handsome and enigmatic scientist, but also, who knew how to bring creativity into real life. As a one human being, Edwin Herbert Land would be the person who is one of the intellects that would be treasured among other famous inventors. Edwin Herbert Land was an only child to Harry and Martha Land. He was born on May 7th, 1909, in Bridgeport, Connecticut. First, he attended Bridgeport public schools, until his family decided to move to Norwich. There he attended Academy to prepare for college. Even at a young age of five, Land showed his expertise to experience. Like most small children, he grew up taking things apart. He first experimented with the familys new phonograph, which got him into a lot of trouble. Since then, he was determined to execute an experiment without anything being in the way. Even in his childhood, he took interest with light. It showed that he clearly took interest to polarization. Not only, he was a thriving child, he was self-taught and a huge reader. Land recalled his childhood by spending most of his time reading novels and literature. Through a novelist Anatole France, he was able to see how cruel the world was. It allowed him to think about what he wanted to do in the future. He wanted to exceed his father as a businessman. He believed inventions allowed business to happen. In 1922, Land attends Norwich camp where he met Julius Silver, at the time he was the camp counselor. From then, he and Julius became good friends and confidant. Later, Julius Silver becomes his lawyer for more than 50 years. Not long after the camp, Land enters Harvard, in the year of 1927 to study chemistry, however, he did not stay long. He only attended for a year. He began experimenting with polarizers at the New York Public Library. Sometime during his stay in New York, Land was walking along the street of Fifth Avenue or Broadway. That is where he got the idea of solving the problem of headlight glare. He fgured out magnificent use for an inexpensive polarizer Such polarizer would greatly reduce the hazards of driving at night. Two years from 1927, he was able to file the first of 535 patents. Then decides to return to Harvard as a physics student. That is also when he decided to marry Helen (Terre) Maislen. Not too long after his arrival at Harvard, his work was recognized among the was a teacher in electricity and magnetism; Land later creates own company with Wheelwright, and visits General Motors and other leading industrial labs in 1932. Not only, Wheelwright was able to provide Land a genuine lab with a bit of help of Theodore Lyman, who was the chairman of Harvards physics department at the time. With a perfect workspace provided for him, Edwin Land was able to move forward with his experiments with sheet polarizers. He was able to learn how to make crystals very small to embed into every square inch of cellulose. It was the summer of 1932, Wheelwright offered Land to start own lab, where he can finish his study for polarized light. Although it first began with headlights, Wheelwright and Land began to extend the use of polarized light even to view stereoscopic movies. In the year of 1930s, Lands work began to take recognition. During the years of 1932 and 1937, he became one of the most significant innovators in United States. On June 13th, 1933, Land received the first patent for polarized material. He was able make polarizer in commercial quantities. Therefore, Land and Wheelwright was able to find companies like Eastman Kodak, General Motors, and General Electric. They signed the first contract with Eastman Kodak for polarizing filters for cameras and market them as Polascreens. Then in the year of 1935, the Land and Wheelwright Company enters contract with American Optical for polarizing lenses for sunglasses. Then, the company receives Cresson Medal from Franklin Institute in 1937. The idea of Polaroid Corporation was formed. Since then, many manufactures were produced through the Polaroid Corporation. In 1939, at New York Worlds Fair, millions were able to view 3-D movie through cardboard and plastic viewing glasses supplied by Polaroid. Then, in January of 1940, The Company first publishes work on still photography system called Vectograph that is able to capture three-dimensional photo. Each process as a stepping stool, the first xperiment with instant photography was born on the year of 1944. Even though it was not until 1948 the Polorids first film was introduced in a roll format, the instant film camera brought a huge success. As the Company grew, the development of Lands inventions did not stop. Polaroid introduced ASA 3000 black and white film as color vision research was published. Then, later in 1960s, Land was able to lead the formation of spy satellite to demonstrate satellite photos. After many years of being the president of Polaroid, Land decides to give up the position to be the chairman nd the chief executive of Polaroid in 1975. Although Land had some trouble with Kodak with patent rights of Polaroid in 1970s, Land remained to keep Polaroid as an individual company. In the year of 1982, Edwin Land resigns even as a chairmanship and board of Polaroid to become a full-time work at Rowland Institute. He brought a close to his involvement with Polaroid. Edwin Land once said to his Polaroid employees, If you dream of something worth doing and then simply go to work on it and dont think anything of personalities, or emotional confitcts, or of money, or of amily distractions You keep on coming nearer to giving the world something well worth having. On March 1st, 1991, Edwin Land died and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge. Adams, Ansel. Polaroid Land Photograpy. Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1978. Evans, Harold, Gail Buckland, and David Lefer. They Mad America. New York: Little Brown, 2004. McElheny, Victor K. Insisting on the Impossible: The Life of Edwin Land. Reading, Mass: Perseus Books, 1998. Wensberg, Peter C. Lands Polaroid : A Company And The Man Who Invented It. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987.

Tito Puente Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Tito Puente - Research Paper Example Tito Puente is a multi-faceted genius with versatility, innovation, experimentation, flamboyance and attitude. Above all, he was a great human being. Without throwing light on these aspects, any portrait sketch of Tito remains incomplete. Tito, born on April 20, 1923 in New York City’s Spanish Harlem, was seven years old when he was enrolled in 25-cent piano lessons (Hispanic Heritage). Fascinated by Gene Krupa, drummer, he started the study of percussion at the age of ten and first performed at the age of thirteen. In his teens, joined Noro Morales and the Machito Orchestra. After completing his study at the Julliard School of Music, he formed his group ‘the Piccadilly Boys’ which later became ‘the Tito Puente Orchestra’ (Puente, Tito). His 1958 album ‘Dance Mania’ was placed among the 25 most influential albums of the 20th century by the New York Times. Key to the City of New York (1969), James Smithson Bicentennial Medal, a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (1990), National Medal of Arts (1997) and Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (2003) were just a few of the innumerable honors conferred on him. Tito is considered to be the godfather of Latin jazz and salsa. However, to say that Tito is an artiste associated with salsa and Latin jazz is a simplistic statement. It presents things in too narrow a light to give an accurate and objective evaluation of Tito’s place, at large, in the world of music. Firstly, it would be injustice to Tito’s soul to brand him just a musician considering his notion that ‘if there is no dance, there is no music’. It is amusing to know that his original dream was to become a dancer. Eddie Torres felt it was a privilege to be identified as the Tito Puente Dancers (Salsa Dancing – New York Style). Then, as a musician, to limit Tito to mambo and jazz is a very inadequate description. His versatility ran the gamut of piano, conga drums, claves, bateria, tap drums along with saxophone and even clarinet. As for the nature of his music, it was only the roots that were Latin. These roots were aesthetically integrated with several other components like the Cuban sounds, the African sounds, the black jazz, the big band swing, bebop, Yoruba tradition, the vibes, the Oriental influence and Kenton progressive style. The integration was done in such a manner that the end product would be appealing to music lovers. It appealed first to a white audience and then to the entire world. Tito defied the Spanish cultural tyranny over Latin music. He brought the African percussion to the mainstream and thus ended the prevalent animosity towards African music. Thanks to his style, the black musicians could shed their inhibitions. Tito’s method was a skilful manipulation of the Afro-Cuban pattern to fit into the framework of the American big band prototype. He was adept in incorporating Latin rhythms in jazz and popular music. The song ‘Hong K ong Mambo’ from the album ‘Dance Mania’ illustrates Tito’s skill in bringing together Latin music and Oriental melody (McNeese 84). In the song ‘Varsity Drag Mambo’, he blends swing jazz of the Big Band style with mambo rhythm. Tito was known for his inclination to experiment with music. But in this process he was cautious not to interfere with the absolute beauty of music. When he went for improvisation in his orchestration, there were three ways in which he would do that. In the first type, the original melody would be completely adhered to. Only a

Different essays Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Different essays - Essay Example stently met; and providing subtle but regular enhancement in the quality of an item or service, so that there are lesser and lesser flaws on delivery. The particulars of how each of these terms is interpreted are specific to the industry or business in question. Risk management, on the other hand, is the process of identifying, assessing and peritonising the risks to efficient functioning within a system. The essence of risk management is improvement in the value of the end result by being flexible yet systematic; transparent and inclusive of all factors and circumstances; integral to the analytical process, but able to provide solutions specific enough to the given problem. Possible the most important factor is that it should be able to evolve continuously to meet changing needs. While both processes – Quality management and Risk management are essential for ensuring smooth operations, and thus have a number of overlaps in their core principles; they ad differ on one significant account. Quality Management focuses on the end result and the extent to which error may be avoided in the deliverables; while risk management focuses on the extent to which already occurred errors may be rectified and repeat ion be avoided. Cianfrani, C.A., West, J. E. (2009).  Cracking the Case of ISO 9001:2008 for Service: A Simple Guide to Implementing Quality Management to Service Organizations (2nd Ed.). Milwaukee: American Society for Quality. pp.  5-7 Continuous quality improvement (CQI) is embedded in patient safety-the ability to learn from mistakes and take actions to prevent the mistakes from re-occurring. Identify and explain how principles of CQI reduce the risk of harmful medical injuries. Tindill and Stewart (1993) have defined CQI as â€Å"A comprehensive management philosophy that focuses on continuous improvement by applying scientific methods to gain knowledge and control over variation in work processes†. Baker (1997) gives the steps to using CQI. The first step

Frequency modulation the amplitude

Frequency modulation the amplitude INTRODUCTION In frequency modulation the amplitude is kept constant and the frequency is modulated by the amplitude of the modulating signal. The modulation index for fm is m = maximum frequency deviation/modulating frequency. FM signal can be represented as:- v = ac sin(wct + m sin wmt ) ABSTRACT Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant. The information-bearing signal (the modulating signal) changes the instantaneous frequency of the carrier. Since the amplitude is kept constant, FM modulation is a low-noise process and provides a high quality modulation technique which is used for music and speech in hi-fidelity broadcasts. In addition to hi-fidelity radio transmission, FM techniques are used for other important consumer applications such as audio synthesis and recording the luminance portion of a video signal with less distortion. There are several devices that are capable of generating FM signals, such as a VCO or a reactance modulator. Frequency Modulation is abbreviated FM. Definitions An important concept in the understanding of FM is that of frequency deviation. The amount of frequency deviation a signal experiences is a measure of the change in transmitter output frequency from the rest frequency of the transmitter. The rest frequency of a transmitter is defined as the output frequency with no modulating signal applied. For a transmitter with linear modulation characteristics, the frequency deviation of the carrier is directly proportional to the amplitude of the applied modulating signal. Mathematical Analysis of FM As was done with AM, a mathematical analysis of a high-frequency sine wave, modulated by a single tone or frequency, will be used to yield information about the frequency components in an FM wave, FM power relations, and the bandwidth of an FM signal. From the definition of frequency deviation, an equation can be written for the signal frequency of an FM wave as a function of time: fsignal = fC + kf eM(t) = fC + kf EM sin?Mt And substitution of d = kf EM yields: fsignal = fC + d sin?Mt But what does this equation indicate? It seems to be saying that the frequency of the transmitter is varying with time. This brings up the same type of problem that was observed when we looked at a time display of AM and then performed a mathematical analysis in an attempt to determine its frequency content. With AM, the signal appeared to be a sine wave thats amplitude was changing with time. At the time, it was pointed out that a sine wave, by definition, has a constant peak amplitude, and thus cannot have a peak amplitude that varies with time. What about the sine waves frequency? It also must be a constant and cannot be varying with time. As was the case with AM, where it turned out that our modulated wave was actually the vector sum of three sine waves, a similar situation is true for FM. An FM wave will consist of three or more frequency components vectorially added together to give the appearance of a sine wave thats frequency is varying with time when displayed in the time domain. A somewhat complex mathematical analysis will yield an equation for the instantaneous voltage of an FM wave of the form shown here: eFM(t) = EC sin(?Ct + mf sin?Mt) where EC is the rest-frequency peak amplitude, ?C and ?M represent the rest and modulating frequencies, and mf is the index of modulation. This equation represents a single low-frequency sine wave, fM, frequency modulating another high-frequency sine wave, fC. Note that this equation indicates that the argument of the sine wave is itself a sine wave. The Index of Modulation The index of modulation, mf, is given by the following relationship: A few more comments about the index of modulation, mf, are appropriate. As can be seen from the equation, mf is equal to the peak deviation caused when the signal is modulated by the frequency of the modulating signal; therefore, mf is a function of both the modulating signal amplitude and frequency. Furthermore, mf can take on any value from 0 to infinity. Its range is not limited as it is for AM. FM Power Relations Recall that for an FM wave the amplitude of the signal, and hence the power, remains constant. This means that the power in the individual frequency components of the wave must add up to the transmitter output power. Furthermore, if the modulation index changes, the total power must redistribute itself over the resulting frequency components. If there is no modulation, then mf = 0 and J0 = 1.0. Mathematically, this can be shown by the following: Prest freq = J0 power 2 Ptrans or Prest freq = Ptrans for mf = 0.0. To determine the power for any individual frequency component, we can use the following relation: Pn = Jn 2(mf) Ptrans 4.11 Furthermore, the total signal power will be given by: Ptotal = (J0power2 + 2J1power2 + 2J2power2 + 2J3power2 + ) Ptrans. The Effect of Noise on FM Recall AM and the effect of noise on it. Random electrical variations added to the AM signal altered the original modulation of the signal. For FM, noise still adds to the signal, but because the information resides in frequency changes instead of amplitude changes, the noise tends to have less of an effect. Expanding upon this idea a bit, one notes that the random electrical variations encountered by the FM signal will indeed cause distortion by jittering the frequency of the FM signal. However, the change in frequency modulation caused by the jittering usually turns out to be less than the change in the amplitude modulation caused by the same relative amplitude noise variations on an AM signal. Also unlike AM, the effect of the frequency jittering becomes progressively worse as the modulating frequency increases. In other words, the effect of noise increases with modulation frequency. Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis To compensate for this last effect, FM communication systems have incorporated a noise-combating system of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis FM Generation Techniques FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation. Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a VCO. For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to give an FM signal DIRECT FM GENERATION The simplest method for generating FM directly is to vary the frequency of an oscillator. A capacitance microphone or a varactor diode may be used as part of the oscillators frequency determining network. The capacitor microphones capacitance varies in response to the intensity of the sound waves striking it, making the oscillators frequency vary as the amplitude of the sound varies. The varactor diodes capacitance depends on the voltage across it. Audio signals placed across the diode cause its capacitance to change, which in turn, causes the frequency of the oscillator to vary. INDIRECT FM GENERATION While it is not possible to vary the frequency of a crystal oscillator directly, it is possible to vary its phase. The resulting PM signal can be used to create FM. This is the basis of the Armstrong modulator.The mathematics required to analyze the Armstrong modulator completely are complex, so we will discuss only the basic circuit operation. An audio signal is passed through a preemphasis network and then an integrator, a special network whose output is the time integral of the input signal.. In this way an FM signal is generated.The Armstrong modulator cannot produce much deviation, so combination of multipliers and mixers are used to raise the carrier frequency and the deviation. The multipliers are used to multiply the carrier and the deviation. The mixers are used to decrease the carrier, while keeping the deviation constant so that additional multiplier stages can be used to obtain more deviation. FM Performance FM Spectrum A spectrum represents the relative amounts of different frequency components in any signal. Its like the display on the graphic-equalizer in your stereo which has leds showing the relative amounts of bass, midrange and treble. These correspond directly to increasing frequencies (treble being the high frequency components). It is a well-know fact of mathematics, that any function (signal) can be decomposed into purely sinusoidal components (with a few pathological exceptions) . In technical terms, the sines and cosines form a complete set of functions, also known as a basis in the infinite-dimensional vector space of real-valued functions (gag reflex). Given that any signal can be thought to be made up of sinusoidal signals, the spectrum then represents the recipe card of how to make the signal from sinusoids. Like: 1 part of 50 Hz and 2 parts of 200 Hz. Pure sinusoids have the simplest spectrum of all, just one component: In this example, the carrier has 8 Hz and so the spectrum has a single component with value 1.0 at 8 Hz . The FM spectrum is considerably more complicated. The spectrum of a simple FM signal looks like: The carrier is now 65 Hz, the modulating signal is a pure 5 Hz tone, and the modulation index is 2. What we see are multiple side-bands (spikes at other than the carrier frequency) separated by the modulating frequency, 5 Hz. There are roughly 3 side-bands on either side of the carrier. The shape of the spectrum may be explained using a simple heterodyne argument: when you mix the three frequencies (fc, fm and Df) together you get the sum and difference frequencies. The largest combination is fc + fm + Df, and the smallest is fc fm Df. Since Df = b fm, the frequency varies (b + 1) fm above and below the carrier. A more realistic example is to use an audio spectrum to provide the modulation: In this example, the information signal varies between 1 and 11 Hz. The carrier is at 65 Hz and the modulation index is 2. The individual side-band spikes are replaced by a more-or-less continuous spectrum. However, the extent of the side-bands is limited (approximately) to (b + 1) fm above and below. Here, that would be 33 Hz above and below, making the bandwidth about 66 Hz. We see the side-bands extend from 35 to 90 Hz, so out observed bandwidth is 65 Hz. You may have wondered why we ignored the smooth humps at the extreme ends of the spectrum. The truth is that they are in fact a by-product of frequency modulation (there is no random noise in this example). However, they may be safely ignored because they are have only a minute fraction of the total power. In practice, the random noise would obscure them anyway. Frequency Response Frequency response is a specification used in amplifiers, pre-amplifiers, CD players, tape decks and other audio components to measure how uniformly it reproduces sounds from the lowest tones to the highest. An amplifier or other component should preserve the loudness relationship between various instruments and voices and should not over or under-emphasize any frequency or tone. This is known as flat frequency response. Bandwidth As we have already shown, the bandwidth of a FM signal may be predicted using: BW = 2 (b + 1 ) fm where b is the modulation index and fm is the maximum modulating frequency used. FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio band is also larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels about the same. The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in the AM case (recall, the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the maximum modulation frequency). In FM, both the modulation index and the modulating frequency affect the bandwidth. As the information is made stronger, the bandwidth also grows. Applications of frequency modulation: Broadcasting: FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech . Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A narrow band form is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. The type of FM used in broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals into space. Sound: FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. This technique, known as FM synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature for several generations of personal computer sound cards. Radio: An example of frequency modulation. This diagram shows the modulating, or message, signal, xm(t), superimposed on the carrier wave, xc(t) The modulated signal, y(t), produced from frequency-modulating xc(t) with xm(t). A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation called radio FM. As , wideband FM (W-FM) requires a wider signal bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference. Frequency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission: hence the term FM radio (although for many years the BBC called it VHF radio, because commercial FM broadcasting uses a well-known part of the VHF band; in certain countries, expressions referencing the more familiar wavelength notion are still used in place of the more abstract modulation technique name).A high-efficiency radio-frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit FM signals (and other constant-amplitude signals). For a given signal strength (measured at the receiver antenna), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than a linear amplifier. This gives FM another advantage over other modulation schemes that require linear amplifiers, such as AM and QAM. REFRENCES; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation http://www.tech-faq.com/frequency-modulation.shtml http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/es310/FM.htm http://www.answers.com/topic/frequency-modulation